Proto-Celtic language
| Proto-Celtic | |
|---|---|
| PC, Common Celtic | |
| Reconstruction of | Celtic languages |
| Region | Central or Western Europe |
| Era | ca. 1300–800 BC |
Reconstructed ancestor | |
| Part of a series on |
| Indo-European topics |
|---|
 |
Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the hypothetical ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method. Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Proto-Celtic is often associated with the Urnfield culture and particularly with the Hallstatt culture. Celtic languages share common features with Italic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier Italo-Celtic linguistic unity.
Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology, and some for its morphology, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax, though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian. So, the main sources for reconstruction come from Insular Celtic languages with the oldest literature found in Old Irish[1] and Middle Welsh,[2] dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD.
Dating
[edit]Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age, ca. 1200–900 BC.[3] The fact that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as *īsarnom) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BCE to 1st century BCE); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. However, Schumacher[4] and Schrijver[5] suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[why?]
Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European
[edit]The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows.[6] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.
Late PIE
[edit]These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches.
- *e is colored by an adjacent laryngeal consonant:
- eh₂, h₂e > ah₂, h₂a
- eh₃, h₃e > oh₃, h₃o
- Palatovelars merge into the plain velars:
- ḱ > k
- ǵ > g
- ǵʰ > gʰ
- Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic sonorant if a laryngeal and another sonorant follow (R̥HR > RaHR)
- Laryngeals are lost:
- before a following vowel (HV > V)
- following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC´ > VC´)
- following a vowel before a consonant, or word finally, resulting in compensatory lengthening, thus (VHC > V̄C, VH# > V̄#)
- between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC)
- Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > TsT > ss)
Italo-Celtic
[edit]The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis.[7]
- Dybo's rule: long close vowels are shortened (or a laryngeal is lost) before resonant + stressed vowel. Note that something like Dybo's rule seems to have also operated in Germanic (Old English wer < *wiHró-).[8]
- īR´ / ? *iHR´ > iR´
- ūR´ / ? *uHR´ > uR´
- Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels:
- CHiC´ > CiC´
- CHuC´ > CuC´
- Development of initial stress, following the previous two changes. But note that this seems to have been an areal feature, shared, for example with the Indo-European Germanic languages and the non-Indo-European Etruscan language.[9]
- Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to *ī between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRījV)
- Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC)
- Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (R̩D > RaD)
- *m is assimilated or lost before a glide:
- mj > nj
- mw > w
- *p assimilates to *kʷ when another *kʷ follows later in the word (p...kʷ > kʷ...kʷ). But Matasovic points out that: A) this change may have occurred late in Celtic; B) it seems not to have operated on some words in Irish; and C) a very similar assimilation (though in reverse) also occurred in Germanic.[10]
One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̩, *n̩, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in).
- Word-initially, HR̩C > aRC
- Before voiceless stops, CR̩HT > CRaT
- CR̩HV > CaRHV
- CR̩HC > CRāC
Early PC
[edit]- Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > gʷ, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p. 372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section):
- kw > kʷ
- gw > gʷ
- gʰw > gʷʰ
- *gʷ merges into *b.
- Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this counterfeeds the previous change, so *gʷʰ > *gʷ doesn't result in a merger; that is, the change *gʷʰ > *gʷ must crucially happen after the sound change gʷ > b has been completed):[11]
- bʰ > b
- dʰ > d
- gʰ > g
- gʷʰ > gʷ
- *e before a resonant and *a (but not *ā) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *ǵʰelH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *gérH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule).
- Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive:
- l̩T > liT
- r̩T > riT
- Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants:
- m̩ > am
- n̩ > an
- l̩ > al
- r̩ > ar
- All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost.
- ē > ī
- ō > ū in final syllables
- Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. (Osthoff's law)
Late PC
[edit]- Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (C₁C₂ > xC₂, Cs > xs)
- p > b before liquids (pL > bL)
- p > w before nasals (pN > wN)
- p > ɸ (except possibly after *s)
- ō > ā
- ey > ē (but not in Celtiberian or Lepontic)
- ew > ow
- uwa > owa
Examples
[edit]| PIE | PC | Example | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | Old Irish | Welsh | ||||||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› a, *h₂e | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› a | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› h₂ep-h₃ōn- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› abū acc. *abonen |
river | aub | afon | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ā, *eh₂ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ā | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› bʰréh₂tēr | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› brātīr | brother | bráthir | brawd | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› e, h₁e | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› e | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› sen-o- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› senos | old | sen | hen | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› H | between consonants[13] |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› a | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ph₂tḗr | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home | |
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ē, eh₁ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ī | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› weh₁-ro- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› wīros | true | fír | gwir | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› o, Ho, h₃e | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› o | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› Hroth₂o- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› rotos | wheel | roth | rhod | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ō, eh₃ | in final syllable | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ū | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› h₂nép-ōt- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› neɸūts | nephew | niæ | nai | ||
| elsewhere | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ā | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› deh₃no- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› dāno- | gift | dán | dawn | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› i | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› i | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› gʷih₃-tu- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› bitus | world | bith | byd | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ī, iH | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ī | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› rīmeh₂ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› rīmā | number | rím | rhif | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ai, h₂ei, eh₂i | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ai | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› kaikos *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› seh₂itlo- |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› kaikos *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› saitlo- |
blind age |
cáech — |
one-eyed — |
coeg hoedl |
empty, one-eyed age | |
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› (h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ei | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› deywos | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› deiwos | god | día | duw | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› oi | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› oynos | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› oinos | one | óen oín; áen aín |
un | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› u | before ‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› wa | ‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› o | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› juwankos > *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› jowankos |
young | óac | ieuanc | ||
| elsewhere | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› u | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› srutos | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› srutos | stream | sruth | ffrwd | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ū, uH | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ū | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ruHneh₂ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› rūnā | mystery | rún | rhin | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› au, h₂eu, eh₂u | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› au | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› tausos | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› tausos | silent | táue | silence (*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› tausijā) |
taw | ||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› (h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u; *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ou | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› tewteh₂ *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› gʷeh₃-u-s |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› toutā *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› bows |
people cow |
túath bó |
tud M.W. bu, biw | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› l̥ | before stops | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› li | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› pl̥th₂nós | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ɸlitanos | wide | lethan | llydan | ||
| before other consonants |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› al | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› kl̥h₁- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› kaljākos | rooster | cailech (Ogham gen. caliaci) |
ceiliog | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› r̩ | before stops | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ri | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› bʰr̩ti- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› briti- | act of bearing; mind | breth, brith | bryd | ||
| before other consonants |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ar | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› mr̩wos | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› marwos | dead | marb | marw | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› m̩ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› am | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› dm̩-nh₂- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› damna- | subdue | M.Ir. damnaid |
he ties, fastens, binds |
— | ||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› n̩ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› an | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› h₃dn̥t- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› dant | tooth | dét /dʲeːd/ | dant | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› l̩H | before obstruents | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› la | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› h₂wlh₁tí- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› wlatis | lordship | flaith | gwlad | country | |
| before sonorants | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› lā | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› pl̩Hmeh₂ | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ɸlāmā | hand | lám | llaw | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› r̩H | before obstruents | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ra | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› mr̩Htom | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› mratom | betrayal | mrath | brad | ||
| before sonorants | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› rā | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ǵr̩Hnom | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› grānom | grain | grán | grawn | |||
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› m̩H | (presumably with same distribution as above) |
*‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› am/mā | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› dm̩h₂-ye/o- | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› damje/o- | to tame | daimid fodam- |
daimid - |
goddef | endure, suffer |
| *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› n̩H | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› an/nā | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› ǵn̩h₃to- ? | *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› gnātos | known | gnáth | gnawd | customary | ||
Phonological reconstruction
[edit]Consonants
[edit]The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC):
Manner Voicing Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar plain labialized Plosive voiceless t k kʷ voiced b d ɡ ɡʷ Fricative ɸ s x Nasal m n Approximant l j w Trill r
Allophones of plosives
[edit]Eska has recently proposed that PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English. Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [tʰ kʰ]. And unaspirated voiced stops /b d ɡ/ were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially.[14][15]
This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from the following evidence:[14][15]
- Modern Celtic languages like Welsh, Breton, and all modern Goidelic languages have such plosive aspiration and voice allophony already attested. (But there is no trace of this in Gaulish.)
- Several old Celtic languages (such as Old Irish, Old Welsh, and Lepontic) used letters for voiceless stop phonemes to write both voiceless stop phonemes and their voiced counterparts, especially non-word-initially. (But in the case of Lepontic, this is because the alphabet was derived from Etruscan, which has no voice contrasts in plosives.)
- The Celtiberian Luzaga's Bronze has the curious spelling of an accusative determiner sdam, where the d is clearly meant to spell [t]. This implies that Celtiberian /d/ had a voiceless allophone [t].
Evolution of plosives
[edit]Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ/ǵʰ, merge with *b, *d, *g/ǵ in PC. The voiced aspirate labiovelar *gʷʰ did not merge with *gʷ, though: plain *gʷ became PC *b, while aspirated *gʷʰ became *gʷ. Thus, PIE *gʷen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welsh ben, but PIE *gʷʰn̥- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu.
PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages *ɸ (possibly a stage *[pʰ])[14] and *h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Next to consonants, PC *ɸ underwent different changes: the clusters *ɸs and *ɸt became *xs and *xt respectively already in PC. PIE *sp- became Old Irish s (f- when lenited, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonic f; while Schrijver 1995, p. 348 argues there was an intermediate stage *sɸ- (in which *ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone 1996, pp. 44–45 finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to *ɸ did not happen when *s preceded. (Similarly, Grimm's law did not apply to *p, t, k after *s in Germanic, and the same exception occurred again in the High German consonant shift.)
Proto-Celtic Old Irish Welsh *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› laɸs- > *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› laxs- 'shine' las-aid llach-ar *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› seɸtam > *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› sextam 'seven' secht saith *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› sɸeret- or *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› speret- 'heel' seir ffêr
In Gaulish and the Brittonic languages, the Proto-Indo-European *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› kʷ phoneme becomes a new *‹The template PIE is being considered for deletion.› p sound. Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios], Welsh pedwar "four", but Old Irish cethair and Latin quattuor. Insofar as this new /p/ fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as a chain shift.
The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages. The many unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against a P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland,[1], or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages.
Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /kʷ/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time:
- Latin Patricius "Saint Patrick"' > Welsh > Primitive Irish Qatricias > Old Irish Cothrige, later Pádraig;
- Latin presbyter "priest" > early form of word seen in Old Welsh premter primter > Primitive Irish qrimitir > Old Irish cruimther.
Gaelic póg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c.
Vowels
[edit]The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet. The following monophthongs are reconstructed:
The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed:
Type With -i With -u With a- ai au With o- oi ou
Morphology
[edit]Nouns
[edit]The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders, three numbers and five to eight cases. The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention:[16] while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered[by whom?] rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling. These cases were nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative and instrumental.
Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. There are *o-stems, *ā-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems.
*o-stem nouns
[edit]| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *makkʷos | *makkʷou | *makkʷoi |
| Vocative | *makkʷe | *makkʷou | *makkʷūs |
| Accusative | *makkʷom | *makkʷou | *makkʷūs |
| Genitive | *makkʷī | *makkʷūs | *makkʷom |
| Dative | *makkʷūi | *makkʷobom | *makkʷobos |
| Ablative | *makkʷū | *makkʷobim | *makkʷobis |
| Instrumental | *makkʷū | *makkʷobim | *makkʷūs |
| Locative | *makkʷei | *makkʷou | *makkʷobis |
However, Celtiberian shows -o- stem genitives ending in -o rather than -ī: aualo "[son] of Avalos".[17] Also note that the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's -osyo, which would have yielded -osjo.
- dūnom 'stronghold' (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *dūnom | *dūnou | *dūnā |
| Vocative | *dūnom | *dūnou | *dūnā |
| Accusative | *dūnom | *dūnou | *dūnā |
| Genitive | *dūnī | *dūnūs | *dūnom |
| Dative | *dūnūi | *dūnobom | *dūnobos |
| Ablative | *dūnū | *dūnobim | *dūnobis |
| Instrumental | *dūnū | *dūnobim | *dūnūs |
| Locative | *dūnei | *dūnou | *dūnobis |
As in the masculine paradigm, the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's -osyo, which would have yielded -osjo.
*ā-stem nouns
[edit]E.g. *ɸlāmā 'hand' (feminine) (Old Irish lám; Welsh llaw, Cornish leuv, Old Breton lom)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ɸlāmā | *ɸlāmai | *ɸlāmās |
| Vocative | *ɸlāmā | *ɸlāmai | *ɸlāmās |
| Accusative | *ɸlāmām | *ɸlāmai | *ɸlāmās |
| Genitive | *ɸlāmās | *ɸlāmajous | *ɸlāmom |
| Dative | *ɸlāmāi | *ɸlāmābom | *ɸlāmābos |
| Ablative | *ɸlāmī | *ɸlāmābim | *ɸlāmābis |
| Instrumental | *ɸlāmī | *ɸlāmābim | *ɸlāmābis |
| Locative | *ɸlāmāi | *ɸlāmābim | *ɸlāmābis |
*i-stems
[edit]E.g. *sūlis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (Brittonic sulis ~ Old Irish súil)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *sūlis | *sūlī | *sūlīs |
| Vocative | *sūli | *sūlī | *sūlīs |
| Accusative | *sūlim | *sūlī | *sūlīs |
| Genitive | *sūleis | *sūljous | *sūljom |
| Dative | *sūlei | *sūlibom | *sūlibos |
| Ablative | *sūlī | *sūlibim | *sūlibis |
| Instrumental | *sūlī | *sūlibim | *sūlibis |
| Locative | *sūlī | *sūlibim | *sūlibis |
E.g. *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (Gaulish Mori- ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh môr)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mori | *morī | *moryā |
| Vocative | *mori | *morī | *moryā |
| Accusative | *mori | *morī | *moryā |
| Genitive | *moreis | *moryous | *moryom |
| Dative | *morei | *moribom | *moribos |
| Ablative | *morī | *moribim | *moribis |
| Instrumental | *morī | *moribim | *moribis |
| Locative | *morī | *moribim | *moribis |
*u-stem nouns
[edit]E.g. *bitus 'world, existence' (masculine) (Gaulish Bitu- ~ Old Irish bith ~ Welsh byd ~ Breton bed)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *bitus | *bitou | *bitowes |
| Vocative | *bitu | *bitou | *bitowes |
| Accusative | *bitum | *bitou | *bitūs |
| Genitive | *bitous | *bitowou | *bitowom |
| Dative | *bitou | *bitubom | *bitubos |
| Ablative | *bitū | *bitubim | *bitubis |
| Instrumental | *bitū | *bitubim | *bitubis |
| Locative | *bitū | *bitubim | *bitubis |
E.g. *beru "rotisserie spit" (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *beru | *berou | *berwā |
| Vocative | *beru | *berou | *berwā |
| Accusative | *beru | *berou | *berwā |
| Genitive | *berous | *berowou | *berowom |
| Dative | *berou | *berubom | *berubos |
| Ablative | *berū | *berubim | *berubis |
| Instrumental | *berū | *berubim | *berubis |
| Locative | *berū | *berubim | *berubis |
Velar and dental stems
[edit]Before the *-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant was fricated to *-x : *rīg- "king" > *rīxs. Likewise, final *-d devoiced to *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.[18]
E.g. *rīxs "king" (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *rīxs | *rīge | *rīges |
| Vocative | *rīxs | *rīge | *rīges |
| Accusative | *rīgam | *rīge | *rīgās |
| Genitive | *rīgos | *rīgou | *rīgom |
| Dative | *rīgei | *rīgobom | *rīgobos |
| Ablative | *rīgī | *rīgobim | *rīgobis |
| Instrumental | *rīge | *rīgobim | *rīgobis |
| Locative | *rīgi | *rīgobim | *rīgobis |
E.g. *druwits "druid" (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *druwits | *druwide | *druwides |
| Vocative | *druwits | *druwide | *druwides |
| Accusative | *druwidem | *druwide | *druwidās |
| Genitive | *druwidos | *druwidou | *druwidom |
| Dative | *druwidei | *druwidobom | *druwidobos |
| Ablative | *druwidī | *druwidobim | *druwidobis |
| Instrumental | *druwide | *druwidobim | *druwidobis |
| Locative | *druwidi | *druwidobim | *druwidobis |
E.g. *karants "friend" (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *karants | *karante | *karantes |
| Vocative | *karants | *karante | *karantes |
| Accusative | *karantam | *karante | *karantās |
| Genitive | *karantos | *karantou | *karantom |
| Dative | *karantei | *karantobom | *karantobos |
| Ablative | *karantī | *karantobim | *karantobis |
| Instrumental | *karante | *karantobim | *karantobis |
| Locative | *karanti | *karantobim | *karantobis |
Nasal stems
[edit]Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-; this becomes *-ū in the nominative singular: *abon- "river" > *abū.
E.g. *abū "river" (feminine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *abū | *abone | *abones |
| Vocative | *abū | *abone | *abones |
| Accusative | *abonam | *abone | *abonās |
| Genitive | *abonos | *abonou | *abonom |
| Dative | *abonei | *abnobom | *abnobos |
| Ablative | *abonī | *abnobim | *abnobis |
| Instrumental | *abone | *abnobim | *abnobis |
| Locative | *aboni | *abnobim | *abnobis |
E.g. *anman "name" (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *anman | *anmanī | *anmanā |
| Vocative | *anman | *anmanī | *anmanā |
| Accusative | *anman | *anmanī | *anmanā |
| Genitive | *anmēs | *anmanou | *anmanom |
| Dative | *anmanei | *anmambom | *anmambos |
| Ablative | *anmanī | *anmambim | *anmambis |
| Instrumental | *anmane | *anmambim | *anmambis |
| Locative | *anmani | *anmambim | *anmambis |
*s-stem nouns
[edit]Generally,*s-stems contain an *-es-, which becomes *-os in the nominative singular: *teges- 'house' > *tegos.
E.g.*tegos "house" (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *tegos | *tegese | *tegesa |
| Vocative | *tegos | *tegese | *tegesa |
| Accusative | *tegos | *tegese | *tegesa |
| Genitive | *tegesos | *tegesou | *tegesom |
| Dative | *tegesi | *tegesobom | *tegesobos |
| Ablative | *tegesī | *tegesobim | *tegesobis |
| Instrumental | *tegese | *tegesobim | *tegesobis |
| Locative | *tegesi | *tegesobim | *tegesobis |
*r-stem nouns
[edit]- r-stems are rare and principally confined to names of relatives. Typically they end in *-ter-, which becomes *-tīr in the nominative and *-tr- in all other cases aside from the accusative: *ɸater- 'father' > *ɸatīr, *ɸatros.
E.g. *ɸatīr 'father' (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ɸatīr | *ɸatere | *ɸateres |
| Vocative | *ɸatīr | *ɸatere | *ɸateres |
| Accusative | *ɸateram | *ɸatere | *ɸaterās |
| Genitive | *ɸatros | *ɸatrou | *ɸatrom |
| Dative | *ɸatrei | *ɸatrebom | *ɸatrebos |
| Ablative | *ɸatrī | *ɸatrebim | *ɸatrebis |
| Instrumental | *ɸatre | *ɸatrebim | *ɸatrebis |
| Locative | *ɸatri | *ɸatrebim | *ɸatrebis |
E.g. *mātīr 'mother' (feminine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mātīr | *mātere | *māteres |
| Vocative | *mātīr | *mātere | *māteres |
| Accusative | *māteram | *mātere | *māterās |
| Genitive | *mātros | *mātrou | *mātrom |
| Dative | *mātrei | *mātrebom | *mātrebos |
| Ablative | *mātrī | *mātrebim | *mātrebis |
| Instrumental | *mātre | *mātrebim | *mātrebis |
| Locative | *mātri | *mātrebim | *mātrebis |
Pronouns
[edit]The following personal pronouns in Celtic can be reconstructed as follows:[19]: 220–221 [20]: 281
| Case | First-person | Second-person | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *mī | *snī | *tū | *swī |
| Accusative | *me[* 1] | *snos | *tu | *swes |
| Genitive | *mene[* 2] | ? | *towe | ? |
The following third-person pronouns in Proto-Celtic may also be reconstructed.[21]: 62 [19]: 220
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
| Nominative | *es, *ēs | *sī | *ed | *eyes |
| Accusative | *em | *seyam? *sīm? | *sūs | |
| Genitive | *esyo | *esyās | *esyo | *ēsom? *esom? |
| Dative Instrumental Locative |
*e(s)yōi | *esyāi | *e(s)yōi | *ēbis |
Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun *yo- can be found in the first Botorrita plaque: The form io-s in line 10 is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from Proto-Indo-European *yo- (Sanskrit ya-, Greek hos), which shows up in Old Irish only as the aspiration for leniting relative verb forms. Line 7 has the accusative singular io-m and the dative singular io-mui of the same root.[22]
Adjectives
[edit]Adjectives in Proto-Celtic had positive, comparative, superlative and equative degrees of comparison.[23]
Positive-degree inflection classes
[edit]Four inflection classes for positive-degree adjectives are known. Most adjectives belonged to the o-ā class, in which the adjectives inflected like masculine o-stems, neuter o-stems and feminine ā-stems when agreeing with nouns of their respective genders. A much smaller minority of adjectives were i- and u-stems.[23]
Consonant-stem adjectives also existed but were vanishingly rare, with only relics in Old Irish like té "hot" < *teɸents.
Comparative degree
[edit]The comparative degree was formed on most adjectives by attaching *-yūs to the adjective stem. For instance, *senos "old" would have a comparative *senyūs "older". However, some Caland system adjectives instead had a comparative ending in *-is, which was then extended to *-ais. For example, *ɸlitanos "wide" had a comparative *ɸletais.[24]
Superlative degree
[edit]The superlative was formed by simply attaching *-isamos to the adjective stem. In some adjectives where the stem ends in *s, the suffix is truncated to *-(s)amos by haplology.[24] Thus, *senos "old" would have a superlative *senisamos "oldest" but *trexsnos (stem *trexs-) would have a superlative *trexsamos.
Verbs
[edit]From comparison between early Old Irish and Gaulish forms it seems that Continental and Insular Celtic verbs developed differently and so the study of Irish and Welsh may have unduly weighted past opinion of Proto-Celtic verb morphology.[citation needed] It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods:
- indicative — seen in e.g. 1st sg. Gaulish delgu "I hold", Old Irish tongu "I swear"
- imperative — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Celtiberian usabituz, Gaulish appisetu
- subjunctive — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Gaulish buetid "may he be", Celtiberian asekati
and four tenses:
- present — seen in e.g. Gaulish uediíu-mi "I pray", Celtiberian zizonti "they sow"
- preterite — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Gaulish sioxti, Lepontic KariTe
- imperfect — perhaps in Celtiberian kombalkez, atibion
- future — seen in e.g. 3rd sg. Gaulish bissiet, Old Irish bieid "he shall be"
A probable optative mood also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and an infinitive (with a characteristic ending -unei) in Celtiberian.[25][26]
Verbs were formed by adding suffixes to a verbal stem. The stem might be thematic or athematic, an open or a closed syllable.
Primary endings
[edit]The primary endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows. They were used to form the present, future, and subjunctive conjugations.[19]
| Person and number | Basic endings | Thematic present | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active | Mediopassive | Active | Mediopassive | |
| 1st sg. | *-ū (thematic) *-mi (athematic) |
*-ūr | *-ū | *-ūr |
| 2nd sg. | *-si | *-tar | *-esi | *-etar |
| 3rd sg. | *-ti | *-tor | *-eti | *-etor |
| 1st pl. | *-mosi | *-mor | *-omosi | *-omor |
| 2nd pl. | *-tesi | *-dwe | *-etesi | *-edwe |
| 3rd pl. | *-nti | *-ntor | *-onti | *-ontor |
Present-stem formations
[edit]Proto-Celtic possessed a diverse set of ways to form present stems. They can be roughly be divided into two broad categories of athematic and thematic.
- Thematic verbs feature a connecting vowel between the present stem and the basic primary endings. This vowel is -o- in the first-person and third-person plural and -e- in the third-person singular and second-person forms. The first-person singular of these verbs end in *-ū.
- Athematic verbs feature no such connecting vowel, and their 1st-person singular forms end in *-mi instead of *-ū.
These two inflectional categories can themselves be subdivided based on the means of derivation from a verb root via a combination of root ablaut grades and suffixes. These derivational classes include:[27]: 36–47
| Inflectional class | Root ablaut | Affix | Class | KPV designation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thematic | e-grade | (none) | Simple thematic | A-1 |
| *-ye- | e-grade *-ye- | A-5 | ||
| *-de- | e-grade *-de- | A-6 | ||
| o-grade | *-ī- *-eyo- |
*-eye- causative/iterative | (none) | |
| zero grade | (none) | Thematized root athematic | A-2 | |
| tudáti-type thematic | ||||
| *-ske- | *-ske- inchoative | A-3 | ||
| *-ye- | zero-grade *-ye- | A-4 | ||
| Nasal infix | Aniṭ-root nasal-infix | A-8 | ||
| i-reduplication | i-reduplicated present | A-15 | ||
| (varied) | *-āye- | Denominative | (none) | |
| Athematic | e-grade | (none) | CeRH-root present | A-13 |
| zero grade | *-na- (when levelled) | seṭ-root nasal-infix | A-8 | |
| *-nu- | *-new- present | A-10 | ||
| *-ī- | essive | A-7 | ||
| (varied) | *-ā- | factitive | (none) |
Nasal-infix presents
[edit]In Proto-Celtic, the Indo-European nasal infix presents split into two categories: ones originally derived from laryngeal-final roots (i.e. seṭ roots in Sanskrit), and ones that were not (i.e. from aniṭ roots). In seṭ verbs, the nasal appears at the end of the present stem, while in aniṭ-derived verbs the nasal was followed by a root-final stop (generally -g- in Old Irish).
To aniṭ roots
[edit]Aniṭ nasal infix verbs conjugated exactly like basic thematic verbs in the present tense.
However, the origin of the invariant root vowel in -o- in *CewC- roots in Old Irish is unclear. Usually, it is held that the consonantism in these verbs was generalized in favour of the plural stem *CunC- in Old Irish. One would expect alternation between o in the 1st- and 3rd- person plural and -u- elsewhere in the present; but for both contexts Old Irish only attests -o-.
The following verbs can be reconstructed in this class:
- To *CeyC- roots: *dingeti, *grindeti, *indeti, *linkʷeti
- Double-nasal presents: *ganndeti, *glanndeti, *skanndeti
- To *CewC- roots: *bundeti, *bungeti, *dlungeti, *exsstungeti, *lungeti, *rundeti, *slunketi, *tungeti, *unketi
- Others: *annketi, *dringeti
To seṭ roots
[edit]On the other hand, the seṭ presents originally had a long vowel after the nasal in the singular and -a- after the nasal in the plural, but the attested Celtic languages levelled this alternation away. Gaulish shows traces of the singular long-vowel vocalism while Old Irish generalized the plural -a- to the singular.[28]
The seṭ nasal-infix presents were further subdivided into subcategories based on the root-final laryngeal. Traditionally two subclasses have long been accepted, the *h₁ subclass (cited with a -ni- suffix) and *h₂ (cited with a -na- suffix). *h₃ nasal-infixed verbs were often leveled to act like *h₂ verbs, being also cited with a -na- suffix; the only original difference between the two would have been the 3rd-person plural ending in *-nonti instead of *-nanti.
The nasal-infix seṭ verbs in Proto-Celtic underwent multiple levelings. First, the suffixal vowel in the plural forms was harmonized so that they would all be the short counterpart to the vowel in the singular forms. Then all the long vowels in the singular were shortened to make the suffix vowel identical in quality and length across all person-number combinations.[29]: 11–23
| Person and number | Pre-leveling | Leveling of vowel quality | Leveling of vowel length | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₁ verbs | *h₂ verbs | *h₃ verbs | *h₁ verbs | *h₂ and *h₃ verbs | *h₁ verbs | *h₂ and *h₃ verbs | |
| 1st sg. | *-nīmi | *-nāmi | *-nāmi | *-nīmi | *-nāmi | *-nimi | *-nami |
| 2nd sg. | *-nīsi | *-nāsi | *-nāsi | *-nīsi | *-nāsi | *-nisi | *-nasi |
| 3rd sg. | *-nīti | *-nāti | *-nāti | *-nīti | *-nāti | *-niti | *-nati |
| 1st pl. | *-namosi | *-namosi | *-namosi | *-nimosi | *-namosi | *-nimosi | *-namosi |
| 2nd pl. | *-natesi | *-natesi | *-natesi | *-nitesi | *-natesi | *-nitesi | *-natesi |
| 3rd pl. | *-nenti | *-nanti | *-nonti | *-ninti | *-nanti | *-ninti | *-nanti |
The following seṭ-root nasal presents are reconstructible for Proto-Celtic:
- *h₁-final roots:
- *h₂ subclass: *kʷrināti, *rināti, *damnāti, *bināti (?), *tlināti, *ɸalnāti, *marnāti, *sannāti, *swannāti
- *h₃-final roots: *ɸarnāti, *gnināti, *starnāti
- Semivowel-final aniṭ root: *kriniti, *klinutor
- Unknown laryngeal: *glinati, *linati, *barnati, *walnator
Preterite formations
[edit]There were two or three major preterite formations in Proto-Celtic, plus another moribund type.
- The s-preterite
- The reduplicated suffixless preterite (originating from the PIE reduplicated stative)
- The t-preterite
- The root aorist
The s-, t-, and root aorist preterites take Indo-European secondary endings, while the reduplicated suffix preterite took stative endings. These endings are:[27]: 62–67
| Person and number | Ending type | |
|---|---|---|
| Secondary endings | Stative endings | |
| 1st sg. | *-am | *-a |
| 2nd sg. | *-s | *-as |
| 3rd sg. | *-t | *-e |
| 1st pl. | *-mo(s) | *-mo |
| 2nd pl. | *-te(s) | *-te |
| 3rd pl. | *-ant | *-ar |
t-preterite
[edit]The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged by Jay Jasanoff, who alleges that they were instead imperfects of Narten presents. Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem vowel i in the singular and e in the plural. The stem vowel in the t-preterite was leveled to *e if the next consonant was either velar or *m, and *i in front of *r or *l.[30]
Suffixless preterites
[edit]Many suffixless preterite formations featured reduplication. The nature of the reduplication depends on the structure of the root.[27]: 68–79
| Root | Meaning | Shape | Preterite stem | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *keng- | "to step" | Other root types | *ke-kong- | Classic Indo-European reduplication, where the root is put in the o-grade and the prefixed reduplicant is formed with the first consonant followed by *e. |
| *nigʷ- | "to wash" | *C(R)eiT- | *ni-noig- | In Proto-Celtic, roots with a semivowel (PIE *-y- or *-w-) before a non-laryngeal consonant have the reduplicant formed not with the first consonant of the root followed by *e, but instead the first consonant of the root followed by the semivowel. The root itself remains in the o-grade. |
| *duk- | "to lead, carry" | *C(R)euT- | *du-douk- | |
| *gʷed- | "to pray" | *CeT- | *gʷād- | Roots ending in only a single stop as their coda generally merely change the stem vowel to *ā to form their preterite, without apparent reduplication. It originally spread from *ād- (from *h₁e-h₁od-), the preterite stem for *ed- "to eat". |
| *kerd- | "to throw, put" | *CeRT- | *kard- | A few roots in *CeRT- also had the *CeT- preterite formation applied to them but the long *ā was shortened due to Osthoff's law. |
| *dā- | "to give" | *C(C)eH- | *de-dū (singular) *ded(a)- (plural) |
Laryngeal-final roots produced long vowels in the root syllable in the singular, but not in the plural (where the root was in the zero-grade instead). Usually the singular stem was generalized in Celtic, but in these cases the plural stem was generalized. |
| *kʷri- | "to buy" | *C(R)eiH- | *kʷi-kʷr- | The treatment for *CeH- roots was also extended to *C(R)eiH- roots. Due to the roots' semivowel, the reduplicant also contains the semivowel. |
Future formations
[edit]One major formation of the future in Celtic, the s-future. It is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European (h₁)se-desiderative, with i-reduplication in many verbs. The Old Irish a- and s-future come from here.[29]
Another future formation, attested only in Gaulish, is the -sye-desiderative.
Subjunctive formations
[edit]Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic, -(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings. It was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation *-seti. The -ase- variant originated in roots that ended in a laryngeal in Proto-Indo-European; when the *-se- suffix was attached right after a laryngeal, the laryngeal regularly vocalized into *-a-. It would then analogically spread to other Celtic strong verb roots ending in sonorants in addition to the weak verbs, even if the root did not originally end in a laryngeal.[29]
There were also three verbs that did not use -(a)se-, instead straight-out taking thematised primary endings. Two of these verbs are *bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive *bweti) and *klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive *klowetor).[31]
Primary subjunctive formations in Proto-Celtic generally use the e-grade of the verb root, even if the present stem uses the zero-grade.
Imperative formation
[edit]Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:[19]: 147–148 [23]
| Person and number | Active endings | |
|---|---|---|
| Basic endings | With thematic vowels | |
| 2nd sg. | -∅, *-si | *-e |
| 3rd sg. | *-tou, *-tūd, *-tu | *-etou, *-etūd, *-etu |
| 1st pl. | *-mo(s) | *-omo(s) |
| 2nd pl. | *-te(s) | *-ete(s) |
| 3rd pl. | *-ntou, *-ntu | *-ontou, *-ontu |
Second-person singular imperative
[edit]The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. On thematic -e/o- verbs, the imperative ended in thematic vowel *-e. However, there is also another second-person singular active imperative ending, -si, which was attached to the verb root athematically even with thematic strong verbs.[32]
The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. The -the in Old Irish is secondary.[33][19]: 140
Third-person imperative
[edit]The third-person imperative endings in Insular Celtic, Gaulish and Celtiberian have completely separate origins from each other. The Insular Celtic endings are derived from *-tou, *-ntou, Gaulish endings from *-tu, *-ntu, and the Celtiberian third-person imperative singular ending stems from *-tūd.[23]
Example conjugations
[edit]Scholarly reconstructions [6][34][35][36] may be summarised in tabular format.[dubious – discuss]
| Person | Present | Imperfect | Future | Past | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active | Medio- passive |
Active | Medio- passive |
Active | Medio- passive |
Active | Medio- passive | ||
| Indicative | 1st sg. | *berū | *berūr | *beremam | — | *bibrāsū | *bibrāsūr | *bīram | — |
| 2nd sg. | *beresi | *beretar | *beretās | — | *bibrāsesi | *bibrāsetar | *birs | — | |
| 3rd sg. | *bereti | *beretor | *bereto | — | *bibrāseti | *bibrāsetor | *birt | ? | |
| 1st pl. | *beromosi | *beromor | *beremo | — | *bibrāsomosi | *bibrāsomor | *berme | — | |
| 2nd pl. | *beretesi | *beredwe | ? | — | *bibrāsete | *bibrāsedwe | *berte | — | |
| 3rd pl. | *beronti | *berontor | *berento | — | *bibrāsonti | *bibrāsontor | *berant | ? | |
| Subjunctive | 1st sg. | *berasū | *berasūr | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2nd sg. | *berasesi | *berasetar | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 3rd sg. | *beraseti | *berasetor | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 1st pl. | *berasomosi | *berasomor | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 2nd pl. | *berasetesi | *berasedwe | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 3rd pl. | *berasonti | *berasontor | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Imperative | 2nd sg. | *bere | *bereso | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 3rd sg. | *beretou | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 1st pl. | *beromos | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 2nd pl. | *berete | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 3rd pl. | *berontou | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Participle | *beronts | *beromnos | — | — | — | — | *bertyos | *britos | |
Copula
[edit]The copula *esti was irregular. It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.[37]
| Person | Present | |
|---|---|---|
| Athematic | Thematic | |
| 1st sg. | *esmi | *esū |
| 2nd sg. | *esi | *esesi |
| 3rd sg. | *esti | *eseti |
| 1st pl. | *esmosi | *esomosi |
| 2nd pl. | **estes | *esetes |
| 3rd pl. | *senti | **esonti |
Numerals
[edit]| Numeral | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | *h₁óynos | *oinos |
| 2 | *dwóh₁ | *duwo |
| 3 | *tréyes | *trīs |
| 4 | *kʷetwóres | *kʷetwores |
| 5 | *pénkʷe | *kʷenkʷe |
| 6 | *swéḱs | *swexs |
| 7 | *septḿ̥ | *seɸtam > *sextam |
| 8 | *oḱtṓw | *oxtū |
| 9 | *h₁néwn̥ | *nowan |
| 10 | *déḱm̥ | *dekam |
| 20 | *wídḱm̥ti | *wikantī |
| 30 | *tridḱómt | *trīkontes |
| 100 | *ḱm̥tóm | *kantom |
Vocabulary
[edit]The vast majority of reliably reconstructible lexical items in Proto-Celtic have good Indo-European etymologies, unlike what is found in, for example, the Greek language—at least 90% according to Matasovic.[38] These include most of the items on the Swadesh list of basic vocabulary. But a few words that do not have Indo-European cognates, so may be borrowings from substrate or adstrate Pre-Indo-European languages, are also from basic vocabulary, including *bodyo- ‘yellow’ (though this has possible cognates in Italic), *kani "good," and *klukka "stone."[39] It is notable that fully 32 items have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic with the meaning "fight."[40]
Examples of morphology derivation from PIE
[edit]Two examples of verbs
[edit](The following examples lack the dual plural and are conjugated in the present tense)
| Pronoun | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Sg. | *bʰéroh₂ | *berū |
| 2nd Sg. | *bʰéresi | *beresi |
| 3rd Sg. | *bʰéreti | *bereti |
| 1st Pl. | *bʰéromos | *beromosi |
| 2nd Pl. | *bʰérete | *beretesi |
| 3rd Pl. | *bʰéronti | *beronti |
| Pronoun | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Sg. | *h₁ésmi | *esmi |
| 2nd Sg. | *h₁ési | *esi |
| 3rd Sg. | *h₁ésti | *esti |
| 1st Pl. | *h₁smós | *esmosi |
| 2nd Pl. | *h₁sté | *estes |
| 3rd Pl. | *h₁sénti | *senti |
Examples of noun declension
[edit](The following examples lack the dual number)
Masculine noun
[edit]| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱos | *artos | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes | *artoi |
| Voc. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱe | *arte | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes | *artūs |
| Acc. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱom | *artom | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoms | *artoms |
| Gen. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱosyo | *artī | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoHom | *artom |
| Dat. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoey | *artūi | *h₂ŕ̥tḱomos | *artobos |
| Loc. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱey | *artei | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoysu | ? |
| Inst. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoh₁ | *artū | *h₂ŕ̥tḱōys | *artūis |
Feminine noun
[edit]| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *ln̥dʰéh₂ | *landā | *ln̥dʰéh₂es | *landās |
| Voc. | *ln̥dʰéh₂ | *landā | *ln̥dʰéh₂es | *landās |
| Acc. | *ln̥dʰā́m | *landam | *ln̥dʰéh₂m̥s | *landāms |
| Gen. | *ln̥dʰéh₂s | *landās | *ln̥dʰéh₂oHom | *landom |
| Dat. | *ln̥dʰéh₂ey | *landāi | *ln̥dʰéh₂mos | *landābos |
| Loc. | *ln̥dʰéh₂i | *landai | *ln̥dʰéh₂su | ? |
| Inst. | *ln̥dʰéh₂h₁ | ? | *ln̥dʰéh₂mis | *landābis |
Neuter noun
[edit]| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *yugóm | *yugom | *yugéh₂ | *yugā |
| Voc. | *yugóm | *yugom | *yugéh₂ | *yugā |
| Acc. | *yugóm | *yugom | *yugéh₂ | *yugā |
| Gen. | *yugósyo | *yugī | *yugóHom | *yugom |
| Dat. | *yugóey | *yugūi | *yugómos | *yugobos |
| Loc. | *yugéy | *yugei | *yugóysu | ? |
| Inst. | *yugóh₁ | *yugū | *yugṓys | *yugūis |
An example of adjectival declension
[edit](The following example lacks the dual number)
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *h₂ḱrós | *akros | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom |
| Voc. | *h₂ḱré | *akre | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom |
| Acc. | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom | *h₂ḱrā́m | *akram | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom |
| Gen. | *h₂ḱrósyo | *akrī | *h₂ḱréh₂s | *akrās | *h₂ḱrósyo | *akrī |
| Dat. | *h₂ḱróey | *akrūi | *h₂ḱréh₂ey | *akrai | *h₂ḱróey | *akrūi |
| Inst. | *h₂ḱróh₁ | *akrū | *h₂ḱréh₂h₁ | ? | *h₂ḱróh₁ | *akrū |
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *h₂ḱróes | *akroi | *h₂ḱréh₂es | *akrās | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā |
| Voc. | *h₂ḱróes | *akroi | *h₂ḱréh₂es | *akrās | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā |
| Acc. | *h₂ḱróms | *akroms | *h₂ḱréh₂m̥s | *akrams | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā |
| Gen. | *h₂ḱróHom | *akrom | *h₂ḱréh₂oHom | *akrom | *h₂ḱróHom | *akrom |
| Dat. | *h₂ḱrómos | *akrobos | *h₂ḱréh₂mos | *akrābos | *h₂ḱrómos | *akrobis |
| Inst. | *h₂ḱrṓys | *akrobis | *h₂ḱréh₂mis | *akrābis | *h₂ḱrṓys | *akrobis |
Derivation of personal pronouns (nominative case) from PIE
[edit]| No. | Pronoun | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sg. | 1st | *éǵ > *me [acc.] | *mī |
| 2nd | *túh₂ | *tū | |
| 3rd M. | *ís | *se | |
| 3rd F. | *seh₂ > *sih₂ [*só + *-ih₂] | *sī | |
| 3rd N. | *íd | *ed | |
| Pl. | 1st | *wéy > *nos [acc.] > *nēs | *snīs; *snīsnīs |
| 2nd | *yū́ > *wos [acc.] > *wēs | *swīs; *swīswīs | |
| 3rd | *éyes | *eyes |
See also
[edit]- Pre-Celtic
- Italo-Celtic
- Beaker culture
- Urnfield
- Hallstatt culture
- La Tène culture
- Goidelic substrate hypothesis
- Ligures
- Azilian
References
[edit]Notes
- ^ Celtic literature at britannica.com, accessed 7 February 2018
- ^ Rhys, John (1905). Evans, E. Vincent (ed.). "The Origin of the Welsh Englyn and Kindred Metres". Y Cymmrodor. XVIII. London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion.
- ^ Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West Archived 2021-11-25 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 45–48.
- ^ Schumacher, Stefan (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck, Austria: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. p. 85. ISBN 3-85124-692-6.
- ^ Schrijver, Peter (2016). "17. Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic". In Koch, John T.; Cunliffe, Barry (eds.). Celtic from the West 3: Atlantic Europe in the Metal Ages – Questions of Shared Language. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 489–502. ISBN 978-1-78570-227-3. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
- ^ a b Matasović 2009.
- ^ Schrijver 2015, pp. 196–197.
- ^ Matasovic, R. (2009) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. p.7
- ^ Salmon, Joseph (1992) Accentual Change and Language Contact Stanford UP
- ^ Matasovic, R. (2009) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. pp.11–12
- ^ Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p.759. Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17 accessed June 21, 2023
- ^ Welsh adfer 'to restore' < *ate-ber-, cymeryd < obsolete cymer < M.W. cymeraf < *kom-ber- (with -yd taken from the verbal noun cymryd < *kom-britu).
- ^ However, according to Hackstein (2002) *CH.CC > Ø in unstressed medial syllables. Thus, H can disappear in weak cases while being retained in strong cases, e.g. IE nom.sg. *dʰugh₂tḗr vs. gen.sg. *dʰugtr-os 'daughter' > early PC *dugater- ~ dugtr-. This then led to a paradigmatic split, resulting in Celtiberian gen.sg. tuateros, nom.pl. tuateres vs. Gaulish duxtir (< *dugtīr). (Zair 2012: 161, 163).
- ^ a b c Eska, Joseph F. (March 12, 2018). "Laryngeal Realism and the Prehistory of Celtic". Transactions of the Philological Society. 116 (3). Wiley: 320–331. doi:10.1111/1467-968x.12122. ISSN 0079-1636.
- ^ a b Eska, Joseph (January 26, 2021). "Laryngeal Realism and early Insular Celtic orthography". North American Journal of Celtic Studies. 3 (1): 1–17. ISSN 2472-7490. Retrieved November 24, 2021.
- ^ Pedersen, Holger (1913). Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen, 2. Band, Bedeutungslehre (Wortlehre). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-26119-4.
- ^ Untermann, J. (1967). "Die Endung des Genitiv singularis der o-Stämme im Keltiberischen." In W. Meid (ed.), Beiträge zur Indogermanistik und Keltologie, Julius Pokorny zum 80. Geburtstag gewidmet, pp. 281–288. Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut der Universität Innsbruck.
- ^ Stokes, Whitley (November 1887). "Celtic Declension". Transactions of the Philological Society. 20 (1): 97–201.
- ^ a b c d e McCone, Kim (2006). The Origins and Development of the Insular Celtic Verbal Complex. Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics. Department of Old Irish, National University of Ireland. ISBN 978-0-901519-46-7.
- ^ Thurneysen, Rudolf (1940). A Grammar of Old Irish. Translated by Binchy, D. A; Bergin, Osborn. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. ISBN 1-85500-161-6.
- ^ Schrijver, Peter (1997). Studies in the History of Celtic Pronouns and Particles. Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics. Department of Old Irish, National University of Ireland. ISBN 978-0-901519-59-7.
- ^ Matasovic, R. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden: Brill. 2006. p. 436
- ^ a b c d Stüber, Karin. "The morphology of Celtic". In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Vol. 2. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1203–1217.
- ^ a b Jasanoff, Jay (1991). "The origin of the Celtic comparative type OIr. tressa, MW trech 'stronger'". Die Sprache. 34: 171–189.
- ^ Stefan Schumacher, Die keltischen Primärverben: Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität, 2004).
- ^ Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise: Description linguistique, commentaire d'inscriptions choisies (Paris: Errance, revised ed. 2003).
- ^ a b c Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. ISBN 3-85124-692-6.
- ^ Lambert, Pierre-Yves; Stifter, David (2012). "Le plomb gaulois de Rezé". Études Celtiques (in French and English). 38 (1): 139–164. doi:10.3406/ecelt.2012.2351. ISSN 0373-1928.
- ^ a b c McCone, Kim (1991). The Indo-European Origins of the Old Irish Nasal Presents, Subjunctives and Futures. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft. IBS-Vertrieb. ISBN 978-3-85124-617-9.
- ^ Jasanoff, Jay (2012). "Long-vowel preterites in Indo-European". In Melchert, Craig (ed.). The Indo-European Verb. Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag. pp. 127–135.
- ^ Darling, Mark (2020). The Subjunctive in Celtic: Studies in Historical Phonology and Morphology (Thesis). University of Cambridge. doi:10.17863/CAM.57857. Retrieved September 1, 2022.
- ^ Jasanoff, Jay (1986). "Old Irish tair 'come!'". Transactions of the Philological Society. 84 (1). Wiley: 132–141. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968x.1986.tb01050.x. ISSN 0079-1636.
- ^ Barnes, Timothy (2015). "Old Irish cuire, its congeners, and the ending of the 2nd sg. middle imperative". Ériu. 65 (1): 49–56. doi:10.3318/eriu.2015.65.3. ISSN 2009-0056. Retrieved September 2, 2022.
- ^ Alexander MacBain, 1911, xxxvi–xxxvii; An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language; Stirling: Eneas MacKay
- ^ Alan Ward, A Checklist of Proto-Celtic Lexical Items (1982, revised 1996), 7–14.
- ^ Examples of attested Gaulish verbs at https://www.angelfire.com/me/ik/gaulish.html
- ^ Schrijver, Peter (December 6, 2019). "Italo-Celtic and the Inflection of *es- 'be'". In Serangeli, Matilde; Olander, Thomas (eds.). Dispersals and Diversification. Brill. pp. 209–235. doi:10.1163/9789004416192_012. ISBN 9789004414501. S2CID 213806505.
- ^ Matasovic, R. (2009)Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Leiden: Brill. p. 443
- ^ Matasovic, R. (2009)Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Leiden: Brill. p. 443-444
- ^ English to Proto-Celtic Wordlist p. 44-45 https://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/CelticLanguages/EnglishProtoCelticWordList.pdf
Bibliography
- Cowgill, Warren (1975). "The origins of the Insular Celtic conjunct and absolute verbal endings". In H. Rix (ed.). Flexion und Wortbildung: Akten der V. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Regensburg, 9.–14. September 1973. Wiesbaden: Reichert. pp. 40–70.
- Evans, D. Simon (1964). A Grammar of Middle Welsh. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
- Hackstein, Olav (2002). "Uridg. *CH.CC > *C.CC". Historische Sprachforschung. 115: 1–22.
- Lane, George S. (1933). "The Germano-Celtic Vocabulary". Language. 9 (3): 244–264. doi:10.2307/409353. JSTOR 409353.
- Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-17336-1.
- Matasović, Ranko (2011). Addenda et corrigenda to Ranko Matasović's Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (PDF). Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9. Brill Academic Publishers.
- McCone, Kim (1996). Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change. Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College. ISBN 978-0-901519-40-5.
- Pedersen, Holger (1913). Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen. 2. Band, Bedeutungslehre (Wortlehre). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-26119-4.
- Schrijver, Peter (1994). "The Celtic adverbs for 'against' and 'with' and the early apocope of *-i". Ériu. 45: 151–89.
- Schrijver, Peter (1995). Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-5183-820-6.
- Schrijver, Peter (2015). "Pruners and trainers of the Celtic family tree: The rise and development of Celtic in light of language contact". Proceedings of the XIV International Congress of Celtic Studies, Maynooth 2011. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. 191–219.
- Thurneysen, Rudolf (1946). A Grammar of Old Irish. Tr. D. A. Binchy and Osborn Bergin. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
- Zair, Nicholas (2012). The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Leiden: Brill.
External links
[edit]
- Leiden University has compiled etymological dictionaries of various IE languages, a project supervised by Alexander Lubotsky.
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